To What Extent do Western Concepts of Ill-Health Limit Policies and Projects Aimed at Improving the Health of Those in the Developing World

Executive Summary menstruum wellness policies on mal edible and human immunodeficiency virus posttal argon focused in achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of the unify Nations. Specific onlyy, these goals include reduction of malnutrition relative incidence since 1990 by 50% and reversal in the trend of human immunodeficiency virus pestilential by 2015. This strive aspires to critically analyse these deuce policies in achieving their respective aims and objectives and the factor ins that contribute to the success of these policies. A brief discussion on the Western concepts of ill-health and how these relate to the concepts of ill-health in develop countries is overly do.Results of the analysis try come in that engaging communities and allowing them to take experienceership of strategies to prevent malnutrition is efficient in reducing incidence of malnutrition. The Scaling Up Nutrition (SUN) campaign illustrates how underdeveloped countries could po sitively respond to healthcare policies introduced by developed countries. However, non all ontogeny countries are nearing or run through accomplishd the 50% reduction in malnutrition incidence. Lack of partnership pastime has been conveyn to affect the progress of the SUN campaign. The same principle of community-based interventions is also used on the indemnity for human immunodeficiency virus infection. Success rate for human immunodeficiency virus indemnity is high with trillions of affected individuals accessing healthcare services compared to only 400,000 in 2004. This would show that policies to increase treatment postulate succeeded. However, prevention of human immunodeficiency virus infection remains challenging. Analysis would show that engaging in risky informal demeanor is a critical factor in growing human immunodeficiency virus infection in Sub-Saharan Africa. Changing the behaviour of a backside population is naturalized to be difficult.While communi ty-based interventions and participation receive contributed to the success of these policies, analysis would reveal that in that respect is a deprivation to increase the technical competencies of the stakeh dodderyers in the communities. This would mark sustainability of programmes long after external aid has stopped. The differences in the concepts of ill-health also appear to wreak the success of policies in developing nations. It is also argued that achieving all the aims and objectives of the policies might not inescapably solve the problem of malnutrition and HIV infection. Both conditions have multiple underlying causes and addressing all these would take respectable time and effort. In decisiveness, policies have made huge strides in improving nutrition of children and m some others and decreasing the incidence of HIV infection. Concerted effort from various stakeholders is unagitated needed to make changes sustainable.IntroductionThe main aim of this brief is to c ritically analyse the policies, Reducing Hunger and Malnutrition in Developing Countries (Department for International Development, 2013) and the global policy on HIV/ back up pandemic (KFF, 2013). Both healthcare policies are designed to repair the health and well-being of mothers and young children and those suffering from HIV/ aid in developing countries. The first part describes these two policies while the second part discusses the Western concepts of ill health and how these limit policies and projects aimed at developing countries. The triad part provides a theoretical assessment of the policies. A discussion on the underlying assumptions and views of healthcare in terms of belief structures and philosophy leave alone be included. The fourth part presents the practical problems with implementation. Finally, a conclusion will summarise the main points raised in this essay. Recommendations will also be made at the end of this brief.Policies on Malnutrition and HIV/AIDSThe R educing Hunger and Malnutrition in Developing Countries (Department for International Development, 2013) aims to dish out individuals gain access to nutritious diet, ensure that pabulum is distributed fairly across the world and mitigate environmental risks and damages that could influence solid food production. In line with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the policy has set out several objectives that should be achieved by 2015. This includes reducing malnutrition since 1990 by 50%.Meanwhile, the Global HIV/AIDS epidemic policy (KFF, 2013) aims to stop and reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS. This is consistent with the United Nations MDGs that by 2015, the HIV/AID epidemic will be controlled and incidence will decline. It is estimated that a total of 18.9 zillion USD have funded HIV/AIDs preventive and treatment programmes in 2012 (KFF/UNAIDS, 2013). Although on that point is a global lower in the trend of this epidemic, incidence of HIV/AIDS is still high in middle and l ow-income countries (UNAIDS, 2013). close to of those suffering from this health condition do not have access to healthcare services, treatment and focal point (UNAIDS, 2013). Importantly women and young girls are more susceptible of the infection compared to men (British HIV Association, 2012). Of the 35 million individuals believed to be suffering from the condition, 3.3 million of these are children (UNAIDS, 2013). Majority (71%) of persons living with HIV/AIDS reside in Sub-Saharan Africa (Health Protection Agency, 2012). The objectives of this policy include decreasing HIV prevalence amongst the young population elder 15-24 years increase condom use especially in high-risk sex increase the comparison of young people with correct knowledge on HIV/AIDs infection and increase the simile of individuals with advanced stages of the disease gain access to antiretroviral medications.Western Concept of Ill-HealthWestern concepts of ill-health could limit the policies on malnutritio n and HIV/AIDS when introduced in developing nations. First, definitions of ill-health could vary between Western and developing countries. There is variation in how ill-health is perceived even amongst professional, academic and the public (Wikman et al., 2005). Ill-health is also viewed differently across disciplines. For instance, the medical instance of health has been accepted for several years in Western healthcare in the past (Wikman et al., 2005). This model states that ill-health is caused by pathogenic microorganisms or underlying pathologies (Dutta, 2008). However, even this concept has changed within healthcare systems. Today, many healthcare professionals have recognised that ill-health is not only caused by pathogenic organisms but fond determinants of health such as poor nutrition, unemployment or stress could all influence ill-health (Dutta, 2008). Wikman et al. (2005) acknowledges that ill-health could be understood by utilize a multi-perspective accessioning. Concepts of ill-health are also considered as historically and culturally specific (Blas and Kurup, 2010). This means that ill-health varies across culture and time. For instance, in Western culture, obesity is considered as ill-health (Blas and Kurup, 2010). In other countries, obesity is viewed as socially acceptable since this is a sign of wealth. In Western culture, findings of scientific publications are used to underpin health policies against HIV (Bogart et al., 2011). habituate of condoms to protect against HIV infection is viewed as acceptable. In some African countries, use of condoms is seen to reduce iodins masculinity (Willis, 2003 MacPhail and Campbell, 2001). Importantly, anal sex in some of these countries is practised to avoid pregnancy or viewed as a cleansing method against the virus for HIV/AIDS (Bogart and Bird, 2003). Hence, these differences in the concept of ill-health could influence the uptake of global health policies in developing nations. To illustrate this argument, the policies on malnutrition and HIV/AIDS will be critiqued. A discussion how western concepts of ill health influence the uptake of these policies in the developing countries would also be done.Analysis and DiscussionAttention on acute and chronic malnutrition is unprecedented in recent years (Shoham et al., 2013). The involvement of the UK, through its policy for malnutrition and hunger, with other countries in the scaling up nutrition (SUN) campaign has brought significant changes on the lives of children who are malnourished. The policy on malnutrition is underpinned by the philosophy on health equity and social determinants of health (Ezzati et al., 2003). Western concepts of ill-health focus on the social determinants of ill-health as a factor in promoting malnutrition in developing countries. For example, unemployment of parents, low directs of grooming, early years, poverty, homelessness are some social determinants of health potently suggested to make he adway malnutrition amongst children (Marmot and Wilkinson, 2005). Uptake of policies for malnutrition in developing countries might be limited if these determinants are not right on addressed. granger (2003) explains that cultural beliefs on food, poor knowledge on the nutritional value of food and food production practices have long contributed to malnutrition in many countries.Policies on malnutrition might no be effective if these do not address the root causes of malnutrition, which are poverty, poor knowledge on food nutrition and poor farming practices (Farmer, 2003). Power structure also plays a role in how policies are implemented. Farmer (2003) stresses that unless the poor are empowered and their rights protected would true development occur. In recent years, there have been improvements in the lives of the poor, specifically on nutrition status. Marmot and Wilkinson (2005) emphasise that presence of poverty and unemployment could all influence health. However, there is evidence that in some developing countries, malnutrition policies have gained success. An analysis would show that involvement of the community plays a crucial role in ensuring success of these policies. For example, Shoham et al. (2013) report that the community based management of acute malnutrition (CMAM) approach contributed to its success in some 65 developing countries across the world.Communities are mobilised and they gain ownership of the programme. Individuals athletic supporter in detecting uncomplicated severe acute malnutrition (surface-to-air missile) and refer children to established out-patient centres. Complicated cases are referred as in-patients in the health sector staff. While the UNICEF (Nabarro, 2013) reported that 10% of the 20 million suspected cases of SAM have been treated through the scaling up nutrition campaign, other target countries have not kept up with the campaign. Policies that have gained acceptance in developing countries are those that empower communities to take actions for their own health. Empowering women through education has been shown to lead to more positive changes in the health of children ages 5 years old and below (Farmer, 2003). Policies that increase the educational levels of women were shown to reduce erroneous perceptions on the causes of malnutrition (Wikman et al., 2005). Shoham et al. (2013) observe that failure to implement the CMAM approach and educating women on malnutrition limits the success of malnutrition policies in communities.A number of studies (Bhutta, 2013 Black et al., 2013 Pinstrup-Andersen, 2013 Nabarro, 2013 Loevinsohn and Harding, 2005) have shown the effectiveness of engaging communities and empowering them to improve the nutritional status of women and children. While factors such as engaging communities and allowing them to take ownership of programmes have been shown to promote uptake of policies, there are still factors that limit policy uptake. These include failure to address t he social determinants of health such as poverty, low levels of education, poor support of the children during early life years and unemployment (Loevinsohn and Harding, 2005). It has been shown that when these factors are present, malnutrition is also high (Pinstrup-Andersen, 2013). There is also a need to understand the perceptions of women and children on food and nutrition to best understand why malnutrition continue to exist in a number of developing countries.Meanwhile, the policy on HIV/AIDS also promote health by engaging communities in implementing projects aimed at preventing HIV transmission (KFF, 2013 British HIV Infection, 2012 Department for International Development, 2013). To date, HIV infection epidemic has beef up and the number of individuals receiving treatment has increased to 9.7 million in 2012 (UNAIDS, 2013). In contrast, only 400,000 individuals with advanced HIV infection receive treatment in 2004. A closer analysis of the cause of HIV infection would sti ll point to risky behaviours of those engaging in unprotected sex and injecting drug users as factors that promote HIV infection (KFF/UNAIDS, 2013). This is a cause of concern since there is still the prevailing cultural belief in a number of African countries that use of condom is unmanly (Willis, 2003 MacPhail and Campbell, 2001).Connolly et al. (2004) argue that changing behaviour of the target population is most difficult. Consequences of HIV infection extend to uninnate(p) children of mother infected with HIV (UNAIDS, 2013). To date, there have been various interventions to prevent HIV infection. These include behaviour changes, increase in HIV screening, manlike circumcision, use of condoms, harm reduction amongst in injecting drug users and blood supply safety (UNAIDS, 2013). Amongst these strategies, changing behaviour remains to be an important intervention that could prevent further spread of the virus. Experts suggest that risky sexual behaviour could only be changed thr ough the use of different health models. For example, the health belief model could be used to inform the target population on the risk of HIV (Health Protection Agency, 2012). In addition, facilitators to behaviour change, such as decreasing stigma on HIV infection, increasing access to healthcare services could help individuals adopt less risky sexual behaviour (Greeff et al., 2008). Patients with HIV often perceive stigma from their own healthcare workers (Kohi et al., 2006 Holzemer and Uys, 2004). This could impact not only the quality of care received by those with HIV infection but might also limit them from gaining further medical treatment.On the other hand, reducing malnutrition by 50% since 1990 has not been achieved in most countries yet (UNICEF, 2014). This is important since the United Nations aims to achieve this target by next year. Food production is continuously affected by stronger typhoons and turbulent put up patterns (KFF, 2013). Droughts appear to be longer, a ffecting agriculture and livestock production (KFF, 2013). Specifically, the UNICEF (2014) acknowledges that the most penetrable groups to increasing stomach disturbance brought by humour change are the poor people. This is especially challenging in the trip of the MDGs since decreases in food production in developing countries could further have an impact on the nutritional status of the women and children (Bryce et al., 2008 Taylor et al., 2013). Climate change has important implications on policies for malnutrition. Even if community-based initiatives are strongly in sit and individuals have learned to produce their own food, changes in weather patterns could impact agriculture activities. The UNICEF (2014) has highlighted this issue and using current experiences, community rehabilitation after a typhoon or drought would mean increased challenges in addressing malnutrition amongst the poorest of the poor.Even if all objective are achieved, there is no full guarantee that mal nutrition will be completely eradicated in developing nations. To date, there are best practices (SUN, 2013) showing that community involvement and compact with government and non-government organisations could arrest severe acute and chronic malnutrition. A number of developing countries, especially in the Sub-Saharan Africa are still struggling with malnutrition despite external aid. The same observation is also made in this region on HIV infection where the poorest amongst the poor remain to be most vulnerable to the infection (SUN, 2013). Hence, it would be necessary to investigate the real cause of malnutrition and HIV infection in developing countries.There are multiple underlying causes of malnutrition and all interact to increase the risk of children for malnutrition. First, poverty has been highlighted foregoing in this essay as an important factor for development of malnutrition (Horton and Lo, 2013). This essay also argues that maternal level of education is a significa nt factor in the nutrition of children (Black et al., 2013). The humanity Health Organization (2011) acknowledges that children born to mothers with at least a high school education enjoy better health compared to children with mothers who have lower educational levels. This observation is consistent across literature (UNICEF, 2014 Black et al, 2013) and illustrates the importance of increasing the education level of mothers.In Sub-Saharan countries that often experience conflicts, malnutrition is often caused by displacement of families and children from their homes and livelihood to excretion centres with minimal food support (UNICEF, 2014). Apart from conflicts, recent effects of climate change have also changed the way developed countries respond to problems of food security (Taylor et al., 2013). As shown in the UK policy for hunger and malnutrition, bullion are also directed to innovations and research on how to respond to environmental damages caused by climate change (UNI CEF, 2014). It should be noted that changes in weather patterns, flooding and drought could have a great impact on food security and sustainability (Department for International Development, 2013).In comparison with the policy on HIV infection, the policy on hunger and malnutrition would have a greater impact on the health of the nation. It has been shown that improving nutrition during the first 1000 days of a childs life could lead to better health outcomes, higher educational attainment and productivity later in adult life (Bhutta, 2013). Malnutrition during a childs first two years of life could have irreversible effects on the childs health (Bhutta, 2013). This could lead to stunting, cognitive impairment, early death and if the child reaches adulthood, difficulty in finding a job (Nabarro, 2013). The number of children and mothers suffering from malnutrition is also higher compared to individuals suffering from HIV infection. However, HIV infection could also have an impact on maternal and child health since infected mothers could transmit the virus to their unborn child (KFF, 2013). Women with HIV also suffer more stigma compared to their male counterparts (Sandelowski et al., 2004).Recommendations and oddmentIn conclusion, the two policies discussed in this brief reveal strategies in preventing and treating malnutrition and HIV infection. Responses of developing countries to these strategies differ. Countries where communities are knotty in the implementation of strategies are generally more successful in addressing these health problems. This would show that community involvement play a crucial role in the uptake of Western policies in developing countries. However, the lack of success in some countries might be attributed to the differences in the concept of ill-health between teeming and developing countries, socio-economic context of poor countries and difficulty in changing ones health behaviour. Finally, this essay suggests that a more holistic approach should be taken in addressing the social determinants of health to ensure that children have access to nutritious food and HIV infection is prevented.ReferencesBhutta, Z. (2013). Early nutrition and adult outcomes pieces of the outfox Online. The Lancet, 382(9891), pp. 486-487.Black, R., Alderman, H., Bhutta, S., Gillespie, S., Haddad, L., Horton, S., Lartey, S., Mannar, V., Ruel, M., Victoria, C., Walker, S. & Webb, P. (2013). Maternal and child nutrition building momentum for impact. The Lancet, 382(9890), pp. 372-375.Blas, E. & Kurup, A. (2010). Equity, social determinants and public health programmes. Switzerland World Health Organization.Bogart, L., Skinner, D., Weinhardt, L., Glasman, L., Sitzler, C., Toefy, Y. & Kalichman, S. (2011) HIV misconceptions associated with condom use among black South Africans an exploratory study, African diary of AIDS Research, 10(2), pp. 181-187.Bogart, L. & Bird, S. 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(2008) Experiences of HIV/AIDS Stigma of persons living with HIV/AIDS and nurses involved in their care from five African countries, African Journal of nursing and Midwifery, 10(1), pp. 78-108. Health Protection Agency (2012) HIV in the United Kingdom 2012 Report. London Health Protection Services, Colindale. Holzemer, W. & Uys, L. (2004) Managing AIDS stigma, Journal of companionable Aspects of HIV/AIDS, 1(3), pp. 165-174. Horton, R. & Lo, S. (2013). Nutrition a qui ntessential sustainable development goal, The Lancet, 382(9890), pp. 371-372.KFF/UNAIDS (2013). Financing the response to AIDS in low- and middle-income countries International Assistance from Donor Governments in 2012. Washington KFF/UNAIDS.KFF (2013). The Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic Online. 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(2005) Illness, disease, and sickness absence an empirical test of differences between concepts of ill health, Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 59, pp. 450-454. Willis, J. (2003) Condoms are for whitefellas barriers to Pitjzntjztjzrz mens use of safe sex technologies, Culture, Health & Sexuality An internationalist Journal for Research, Intervention and Care, 5(3), pp. 203-217.World Health Organization (2011). Global Health Observatory (GHO) scraggy in Children Online. Available at http//www.who.int/gho/mdg/poverty_hunger/underweight_text/en/ (Accessed 25th March, 2014).

Space meets knowledge The impact of workplace design On knowledge sharing ?

conAn examination of the role the physical body of work plays in creating opportunities and barriers that influence companionship management has become a matter of substantial pass on. Design of good workplaces for association sh be-out is considered a major challenge for each organisation. This eviscerate of business provides an insight into the impact of the design and persona of the physical workplace on whopledge share. indicate presented in this study substantiates the position that the physical presence of an employee has the potential to impact performance and friendship management. This sagacity get out be of use to researchers seeking to kick upstairs examine the argona of knowledge management.Introduction knowledge management, described as the intentional management of information has become increasingly great to organisations (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995 Alavi, 1997 Garvin, 1997 Wiig, 1997 Davenport and Prusak, 1998 Ruggles, 1998 Hansen, 1999 Zack, 1999a ). In super part this has been fuelled by the exp iodinential growth of the knowledge economy and the increasing number of knowledge workers who nonplus become as essential for m each firms competitiveness and survival (Tallman and Chacar 2010). For many uphill organisations salute to pillowcase contact is essential in the dissemination of knowledge inwardly that foundation (Ibid). The process of internal knowledge management is a dynamic element that must be brinytained in indian lodge to resurrect results.Literature Review experience is defined as a dynamic human or genial process that allows a justification of personal belief as construes the truth (Nonaka 2011). Interaction mingled with people, employees and consumers is one of the chief(a) orders of communicating forward-looking and inspirational progress. Modern studies in the field of knowledge management ware begun to shift localize from the magnificence of the physical workplace to those look atd in know ledge work (Becker 2004). The credit rating of inherent value in the employee base adds inpennyive to capitalize on the low cost innovative opportunities that knowledge sharing creates (Tallman et al 2010). With critical insight established finished the direct contact of the employees, the fashion of discourse becomes a critical concern (Dakir 2012). International companies are recognizing this aforesaid(prenominal) value of spunk to give fundamental fundamental fundamental fundamental fundamental interaction as the social interaction between management sections, benefits production and nurture levels world-wide (Noorderhaven and Harzing 2009).In their sermon of social capital, Cohen and Prusak (2001) emphasise the importance of the physical workplace for the exchanging of knowledge, specifically the distribution of ideas amongst individuals in a shoes where they could not assume that others k unseasoned what they were required to know. Becker (2004) hypothesises that the c hoices an organisation makes ab pop how space is allocated and designed directly and indirectly shapes the infrastructure of knowledge networks the dense and richly veined social systems that help people learn hurried and engage more deeply in the work of the organisation. This corresponds with the Dakir (2012) argument that engineering science is no substitute for live interaction among the members of the organization. Davenport et al (2002) under overlyk a study among 41 firms that were implementing initiatives to advance the performance of luxuriously-end knowledge workers who were regarded as critical to the familiaritys aims. They focused upon determining the elements that affected the knowledge work performance. Surprisingly, the issue that was almost frequently dealt with by these firms involved the physical workplace the other common ones were information technology and management (Davenport 2005, p. 166).Davenport (2005) emphasises that the recognition of the importa nce of knowledge work has grown in recent years, but that our understanding of the physical conditions in which knowledge thunder mug flourish has failed to keep pace. The inclusion of emerging colloquy technology has been argued to provide a reform opportunity for employee interaction (Rhoads 2010). This same element of improved long distance conference is credited with fall the valued offhanded inspiration that many firms rely on during day to day operations (Denstadli, Gripsrud, Hjortahol and Julsrud 2013). tally to Davenport et al (2002) workplace design should be seen as a key determinant of knowledge-worker performance, while we largely remain in the dark ab turn up how to align space to the demands of knowledge work. Davenport (2005) emphasises the point that in that location is a good deal said nigh the topic, but not much known about it (p. 165). most(prenominal) of the decisions concerning the climate in which work takes place have been created without considera tion for performance factors. This fact continues to diminish opportunities for in-house knowledge sharing and effective dissemination of intelligence (Denstadli et al 2013).Becker (2004) points out that the cultivation of knowledge networks underpins the continuing debate about office design, and the relative virtue of open versus closed space. Duffy (2000) confirms these views when he admits that early twenty-first-century architects currently know as little about how workplaces shapes business performance as early nineteenth-century physicians k impudent how diseases were transmitted before the learning of epidemiology was established (p. 371). This makes either emerging decision regarding effective knowledge sharing critical to the development of any organisation.Deprez and Tissen (2009) illustrate the strength of the knowledge sharing process using Googles approach one ships alliance that is fully aware of its spatial capabilities. The spatial arrangements at Googles offi ces can serve as a useful example of how design can have a bearing on improving the supervene upon of knowledge in ways that also add value to the company. The Zurich Google engineering office is the companys newest and largest research and development facility besides Mountain View, California. In this facility, Deprez and Tissen (2009) report Google has created workspaces where people literally microscope slide into space (i.e. the restaurant). Its really true Google Is different. Its in the design its in the cable and in the spirit of the place. Its almost organizing without management. A workplace becomes a workspace, mobilizing the collective Google minds and touch on them to their fellow Zooglers inside the Zurich office and to access all the outside/external knowledge to be captured by the All Mighty Google organisation (2009, p. 37).What works for one organisation may not work for other and this appears to be the case in particular when it comes to Google (Deprez et al 2009). Yet, some valuable lessons in how the workplace can be used to good effect can be gained from Googles operations. For this precise reason, research was carried out at Google Zurich to provide both theoretical and managerial insights into the impact of the design and use of the physical workplace on knowledge sharing (Ibid).Studies comparing the performance of virtual and co-located squads found that virtual squads tend to be more lying-in oriented and exchange less social information than co located ones (Walther & Burgoon 1992 Chidambaram 1996). The researchers kick up this would slow the development of relationships and fuddled relational links have been shown to enhance creativity and motivation. Other studies argue that face-to-face team meetings are usually more effective and satisfying than virtual ones, but just virtual teams can be as effective if given sufficient time to develop toilsome throng relationships (Chidambaram 1996). This research implies the impo rtance of facilitating social interaction in the workplace, and between team members (virtual and co-located) when the team is ab initio forming. Hua (2010) proposes that repeated encounters, even without conversation, help to promote the awareness of co-workers and to foster office relationships. McGrath (1990) recommends that in the absence of the ability to have an initial face-to-face meeting other avenues for build strong relationships are sensible to ensure the cohesiveness and effectiveness of the teams interaction. So although interaction alone is not a sufficient condition for successful collaboration, it does indirectly support collaboration. Nova (2005) points out that physical proximity allow the use of non verbal communication including different paralinguistic and non-verbal signs, precise timing of cues, coordination of turn-taking or the repair of misunderstandings. Psychologists note that deictic references are used in face-to-face meetings on a regular basis, w hich refers to pointing, looking, touching or gesturing to indicate a nearby object mentioned in conversation (Ibid). currentlands et al (2002) analysed interactions of two groups performing a join task in either face-to-face or a video conference system. They found that deictic glide by gesture occurred five times more frequently in the face-to-face condition the virtual interaction. more(prenominal) recent research has found that extroverts gesticulate for longer and more often in meetings than introverts (Jonnson 2006). Barbour and Koneya (1976) famously claimed that 55 per cent of communication is non-verbal communication, 38 per cent is finished with(p) by tone of voice, and only 7 per cent is related to the words and content. Clearly non-verbal communication is a key component of interaction and virtual interaction systems need to replicate this basic need, especially in the early stages of team forming or when the team consists of a postgraduate proportion of extroverts . The physical co-location of teams also facilitates collaboration (Ibid). A seminal piece of research carried out by Allen (1977) show that the probability of two people communicating in an organisation is inversely comparative to the distance separating them, and it is close to zero after 30 metres of physical separation. Furthermore, proximity helps maintain task and group awareness, because when co-located it is easier to gather and update information about the task performed by team members (Dakir 2012).A recent come of workers at highly collaborative companies found that most collaborative burdens are short (with 34% permanent fewer than 15 minutes) and the majority take place at the desk (Green 2012). It is likely that these impromptu interactions relate to sharing information (perhaps on the PC) or answering queries rather than lengthy intense discussion and development of joint ideas. Interactions at desks may facilitate tacit knowledge sharing by overhearing relevant co nversations between team members, but such interactions can also be considered a distraction if not relevant (Denstadli et al 2013).MethodologyThere are two acknowledged methodological approaches quantitative and soft (Creswell 2005). The quantitative method involves identifying variables in a research question which are then utilized in order to collate numerical entropy (Ibid). The qualitative research is open to interpretation allowing personal answers to be incorporated into the study (Creswell 2005). The researcher considered both options in order to complete the necessary goals.Types of DataThere are two forms of data primary, or newly generated data, or secondary, previous data generated within existing studies (Creswell 2005). This study required the acquisition of primary data creating the need for relevant instruments. A keep an eye on with 5 open-ended questions has been created and subsequently conducted with centred on 548 employees working(a) at Google Zurich. This was done in order to explore the perceptions of Google employees with regard to the surroundings in which they work with a focus on factors that affect knowledge sharing in the work environment.Methods of Data CollectionThe qualitative data analysis employed a Content Analysis technique to reveal participant perceptions of their work environment. The watch questions were designed to explore employee perceptions regarding the following dimensions1) Activities that allow for increased exchange of knowledge2) Advantages of frequent interaction with colleagues3) Individuals or groups dependent on the frequent interaction with co-workers orgroup members4) Factors that facilitate interaction within the workplace5) Factors that inhibit interaction with others in the workplace.Survey participants responded to five open-ended questions and rated their answers using a five-point Likert scale where 5 was most authoritative. Using a Content Analysis approach (Creswell 2005 Leedy and Ormr od 2005 Neuendorf 2002), the interview responses were analysed. Content Analysis is a qualitative data reduction method that generates categories from key words and phrases in the interview text it is an evidence-based process in which data gathered through with(predicate) an exploratory approach is systematically analysed to produce predictive or inferential intent (Creswell 2005). Content Analysis was used to identify themes or common concepts in participants perceptions regarding the culturally and environmentally distinctive factors that affect interaction in the workplace (Neuendorf, 2002). This process permitted the investigator to quantify and analyse data so that inferences could be drawn.The Content Analysis of survey interview text was categorically coded to reflect mixed levels of analysis, including key components, words, sentences, or themes (Neuendorf 2002). These themes or key components were then examined using relational analysis to determine whether there were any relationships between the responses of the subjects. The analysis was conducted with Nvivo8 software which enables sorting, categorising, and oftenness counts of invariant constituents (relevant responses). Content Analysis was used to critically evaluate the survey responses of the study participants, providing in-depth information regarding the factors related to workplace interaction.Sample Respondent CharacteristicsThe invited population consisted of 675 individuals and a total of 548 individuals participated in the survey resulting in a response rate of 81 per cent. Of these 548 completed surveys, 35 responses were discarded because the respondents only partially completed the survey. The final sample consisted of 513 respondents. The key characteristics of these respondents are summarized in circuit card 4-1.Table 4-1 Sample Respondent Characteristics FactorDescriptionFrequency EducationHigh SchoolBachelor ground levelCertificate DegreeMaster DegreePhD DegreeOther1511819231 1219 Tenure 2 years2-5 years 5 years15333129 while Building Use 1 year1 year2 years 2 years1401022710 metre Desk Use 3 months3-6 months7-12 months 12 months14315912685 Age 20 years21-30 years31-40 years41-50 years 50 years0216255357 GenderMaleFemale42885 MobiltyZurich OfficeOther Google OfficeHome OfficeTravellingOther88.9%3.9%3.9%2.7%0.5% PositionEngineeringSales and merchandisingGandAOther428121459 NationalityGermanySwitzerlandUnited StatesFrancePolandUnited KingdomRomaniaHungaryNetherlandsSwedenSpainAustraliaRussian Federation 10 respondents73623533282724231716141312136Survey FindingsIn order to provide an audit trail of participant responses to the thematic categories that emerged from the data analysis, discussion of the causeings precedes the tables of data, within a framework consisting of the five survey questions. An boilers suit summary is provided at the conclusion of the discussion of findings. During the analysis of data, common invariant constituents (relevant resp onses) were categorically coded and associated frequencies were documented. Frequency data include overall frequency of occurrence as well as frequencies based on rating level (5 = most definitive to 1 = least authorised). Invariant constituents with a frequency of less than 10 were not include in the tables. Study conclusions were developed through an examination of the high frequency and highly rated invariant constituents in conjunction with the revealed thematic categories. head word 1 Main Activities that Allow Exchange of KnowledgeTable 4-2 provides high frequency invariant constituents (relevant responses) by survey participants demonstrating themes within the data for Question 1. Thematically, the analysis revealed the following primary perceptions of participants in terms of main activities that allow knowledge exchange (a) meetings of all causas (b) whiteboard scene of action discussions (c) video conferencing (d) email, and (e) code reviews. These elements demo a hig h frequency of importance ratings, and a moderate percentage of respondents rated these elements as most important (rating 5). Other themes revealed through the analysis included the importance of writing and reading documentation, Instant Messaging (IM) text chat, Internet electrical relay Chat (IRC), and extracurricular/social activities. All other invariant constituents with a frequency of greater than 10 are shown in Table 4-2.Table 4-2 Data Analysis Results for Question 1 Main Activities Allowing for Exchange of Knowledge Invariant ConstituentOverall number (Frequency)By evaluate5=Most important n=51354321 Informal discussion/face to face mtgs/stand ups35114977603332 Formal intend meetings/conference room mtgs2184061563823 Email207747432216 Lunches/Dinners64910151812 Whiteboard area discussions/brainstorming5822131094 Video Conferencing (VC)5841620144 Code Reviews515162046 opus/Reading Documentation476813164 IM/Text Chat/IRC4610161073 Extracurricular Activities (e.g., pool, socializing, Friday office drinks, etc.)4522151016 Writing/Reading docs specifically wiki pages/sites34210697 Chat (unspecified in person vs. text)3387873 Techtalks2745675 Training/presentations23133106 Mailing lists21102522 Shared docs/doc collaboration1703554 Read/write design docs specifically1202505 Tele send for/phone conversations1203243Question 2 Main Advantages of everyday Interaction with ColleaguesTable 4-3 provides high frequency invariant constituents (relevant responses) by survey participants demonstrating themes within the data for Question 2. Thematically, the analysis revealed the following elements representing the primary perceptions of participants in terms of the main advantages to frequent interaction with colleagues (a) knowledge and information exchange and transfer (b) staying current on projects and processes (c) social interaction (d) learning from others (e) faster problem resolution (f) efficient collaboration and (g) continuous and early feedback. The following themes received a high frequency of importance ratings and a large percentage of most important and important ratings (rating 5 and 4, respectively) included knowledge sharing, staying in touch and up to date, learning from others, faster resolution/problem solving, crack collaboration, and feedback. Although socialize was revealed to be a strong overall theme, it also deliverd scorn importance ratings. Other themes revealed through the analysis are provided in Table 4-3.Table 4-3 Data Analysis Results for Question 2 Main Advantages of Frequent Interaction Invariant ConstituentOverall number (Frequency)By evaluation5=Most important n=51354321 Knowledge sharing/exchange of information/Knowledge transfer149753919124 Staying in touch/up to date/ more info on projects and processes11358281782 Socializing/social interaction7451035186 Learning/learning from others/learning new things/increased knowledge base7217281485 Understand problems/ needs faster resolution and quicke r problem solving7025241146 Better/more efficient collaboration67428953 Feedback/continuous feedback/early feedback661729893 New and better ideas/flow of ideas/creativity/ brainstorming6525151474 Teamwork/being part of a team/teambuilding5110121892 Get work done/efficiency/speed462613241 Fun4421115115 Better understanding of what others are doing and how/workloads4415171002 Everyone on same page/shared vision/focus on goals of team32109652 Better personal contact and on the loose(p) interaction27561123 Avoid misunderstanding/work duplication27810441 Helping others/ acquire help (when stuck)26391031 Good/happy atmosphere/work environment2412858 Networking2219624 Motivate each other/inspiration2151582 Other/new perspectives/viewpoints18210312 Improving look of work/performance1615910 Work synchronization1628141 Productivity1231431 Knowing latest news/innovations1203216 Better communication1011521Question 3 Individuals or Groups that are Dependent on Frequent InteractionTable 4-4 pro vides high frequency invariant constituents (relevant responses) given by survey participants demonstrating themes within the data for Question 3. Thematically, the analysis revealed the following elements representing the primary perceptions of participants in terms of individuals or groups that are dependent on frequent interaction of the participant (a) my team/project teammates/peers and (b) managers. The first theme demonstrated a high frequency of importance ratings with a moderate percentage of most important and important ratings (rating 5 and 4, respectively). Although the theme of managers was revealed to be a relatively strong overall theme, it also demonstrated lower importance ratings. Other themes revealed through the analysis are shown in Table 4-4.Table 4-4 Data Analysis Results for Question 3 Individual/groups dependent on frequent interaction of participant Invariant ConstituentOverall number (Frequency)By Rating5=Most important n=51354321 My team/project teammates /peers12887191435 Managers/PMs484241163 Users/customers/clients357121042 All reports/related teams34717442 Engineering teams (various)28188200 Recruiting team/staffing1753630 Geo Teams1576200 Operations teams1423522 All of them1191010 HQ1133122 Other engineers using my project/peer developers of my tool1015310Question 4 Factors Facilitating Easy InteractionTable 4-5 provides high frequency invariant constituents (relevant responses) by survey participants demonstrating themes within the data for Question 4. Thematically, the analysis revealed the following elements representing the primary perceptions of participants about factors that facilitate easy interaction (a) common, proximal, and open workspace areas (b) common functional areas (c) sufficient and available meeting facilities (d) splendid communication tools and (e) video conference facilities. The theme of open and common workspace areas/shared office space demonstrated a high frequency of importance ratings with a very la rge percentage of most important ratings (rating 5). Other revealed themes, particularly the second listed theme, demonstrated relatively high overall frequency, but these themes did not demonstrate the strength of importance that the first theme did. Other themes and invariant constituents revealed through the analysis are shown in Table 4-5.Table 4-5 Data Analysis Results for Question 4 Factors Facilitating Easy Interaction Invariant ConstituentOverall number (Frequency)By Rating5=Most important n=51354321 Open and Common workspace areas/shared office space/desk locations/posing together175103342594 Common shared Areas (e.g., Kitchen, play/game live, lounges, library, etc.)173406642178 Enough facilities for meetings/availability of meeting and conference areas90192730122 Great communication tools (email, VC, chats, dist. Lists, online docs, wireless, VPN, mobile)80113014187 Video Conference meeting rooms/facilities78192518124 Onsite lunch/dinner/common dining area (free food and eating together)5071511134 Whiteboard areas for easy meetings431018771 Corporate culture/open culture/ open communication culture431811932 Email421113954 insouciant and social environment/open atmosphere36195921 People easy going, friendly, smart, knowledgeable, willing to help35149336 Social Events2836577 Company calendar/planned ops for meeting/ scheduled meetings1937621 geographic co-location/same time zone1374200 Travel/trips to other offices1212135 Chat (non-specific text or in person)1124302 IM/internet chat1051112 MOMA/social networking/wiki pages/company docs1010342Question 5 Factors Inhibiting Interaction with OthersTable 4-6 provides high frequency invariant constituents (relevant responses) by survey participants demonstrating themes within the data for Question 5. Thematically, the analysis revealed a single strong element and several(prenominal) elements with less relevance as inhibiting factors. The physical geographic differences specifically the time zone differe nces were noted by a majority of participants as the most important element that inhibited interaction with others. Study participants comprehend their overscheduled and busy work lives, hoo-hah levels in their workspaces, and shared work environments to be contributing inhibitory factors with regard to interaction with others. These elements also demonstrated high frequencies of importance ratings with a moderate percentage of most important ratings (rating 5). Other themes revealed through the analysis are shown in Table 4-6.Table 4-6 Data Analysis Results for Question 5 Factors Inhibiting Interaction with Others Invariant ConstituentOverall number (Frequency)By Rating5=Most important n=51354321 Physical Geographic distance/ timezone differences16411536931 Very busy/Overscheduled people/ overbooked calendars/ too many meetings4517161020 Crowded/noisy environment/ noise in shared space33196440 Defective VCs/ VC suboptimal/ VC equipment not working2597720 No meeting rooms availab le2286620 Too few VC rooms in some locations / lack of available VC rooms1949501 Open Space no privacy, interruptions/ disruptions1958321 Information overload/ too much email1562610 Large office building/building size and layout/ too many people, difficult to find people15114000 Team split between multiple sites or large distance between team members in same bldg1545420 Need more whiteboards/lack of informal areas with whiteboards1135210 Language barrier lack of correct side/not knowing colloquial lang. or nuances1151311 Lack of time/deadlines1152121 Different working hours within same time zone1053200DiscussionBoth the literature and the survey have illuminated interesting facets of the work environment and the need for personal communication. The analysis of the 513 participants responses to five open-ended questions from the employee perception survey revealed patterns of facilitating and inhibiting factors in their work environment. Nonaka (2011) suck uply illustrates this poi nt with the argument that the communal environment promotes a standard of communication not found in the technological alternatives. Further, the shift away from the organization to the person orientation provides a fundamental benefit to every employee (Becker 2004). With a rising recognition of individual value, the organisation is building employee trust. Participants in this study preferred frequent, informal opportunities for the exchange of knowledge. The opportunity for growth was centred on the capacity to exchange concepts in a free and easy manner (Nonaka 2011). The evidence presented in this study demonstrates that these opportunities were more valued by team members with high knowledge exchange needs. This is line with the increased depth of knowledge and ability to meet technical needs through employee communication (Tallman et al 2010). A combination of professional advice can benefit the entire production and development process. In this study, transactions among part icipants were often brief, and were perceived to require limited space often just devise space with noise-regulating options not found in open-office environments. Dakir (2012) demonstrates the environment has the potential to add to or detract from employee communication, reservation this factor a critical consideration. Spontaneous and opportunistic knowledge-sharing transactions were valued, and technology provided a platform for this type of knowledge exchange to occur. This evidence from the survey corresponds with the literature illustrating that increased communication and sharing in the workplace enhances the entire operation, as well as providing new and fresh opportunities and innovations (Tallman et al 2010).The research at Google provides further support for the view of some go alonging companies who strongly believe that having workers in the same place is authoritative to their success (Noorderhaven et al 2009). yahoos CEO Marissa Mayer communicated via a memo t o employees that June 2013, any existing work-from-home arrangements will no longer apply. Initial studies theorized that the work at home system would provide a better platform for workers, even on a local level (Dakir 2012). Many points of the memo cited in this Yahoo example, parallel the literature presented in this study. Her memo stated (Moyer 2013) To become the absolute best place to work, communication and collaboration will be important, so we need to be working side-by-side. This is clearly in line with the Coehen and Prusak (2001) presumption that the physical workplace is a critical element of the dynamic business. That is why it is critical that we are all present in our offices. Some of the best decisions and insights come from hallway and cafeteria discussions, meeting new people, and impromptu team meetings. This element of the her reasoning is nearly identical to the argument presented by Dakir (2012), that a successful company do so, in part, by promoting commu nication and teamwork in the office, the technical alternatives are not enough.Speed and quality are often sacrificed when we work from home. We need to be one Yahoo, and that starts with physically being together.Being a Yahoo isnt just about your day-to-day job, it is about the interactions and experiences that are only practical in our offices (Moyer 2013). This section is directly in line with emerging studies citing the vital nature of the interaction and face to face employee contact (Heerwagen et al. 2004).This study has clearly demonstrated that Mayer is not alone in her finding Steve Jobs operated in a similar fashion as well (Davenport et al 2002). Despite being a indweller of the digital world, or maybe because he knew all too well its isolating potential, Jobs was a strong believer in face-to-face meetings. Theres a temptation in our networked age to think that ideas can be developed by email and iChat, he said. Thats crazy. Creativity comes from spontaneous meetings, from haphazard discussions. You run into someone, you ask what theyre doing, you say Wow, and soon youre cooking up all sorts of ideas (Isaacson, 2011, p. 431). This assertion by Jobs closely resembles the argument presented in the Rhoads (2010) study that found a clear correlation between the communication capacity and opportunity for successful innovation and progress. Following this philosophy led Jobs to have the Pixar building designed to promote encounters and unplanned collaborations.Mayers former colleague at Google agrees (Ibid). Speaking at an event in Sydney February 2013, Google CFO Patrick Pichette said that teleworking is not encouraged at Google. This reflects the consensus that is emerging that time in the office is not only valuable but necessary to sustained competition in the persistence (Denstadli et al 2013). Pichette believes that working from home could isolate employees from other staff.Companies like Apple, Yahoo and Google are holding on to (or have start ed embracing) the belief that having workers in the same place is crucial to their success (Dakir 2012). This appears to be based on the view that physical proximity can lead to casual exchanges, which in turn can lead to breakthroughs for products. Heerwagen et al (2004) illustrates that it is evident that knowledge work is a highly cognitive and social activity. Non-verbal communication is complex and involves many unconscious mechanisms e.g. gesture, body language, posture, facial expression, eye contact, pheromones, proxemics, chronemics, haptics, and paralanguage (Denstadli et al 2013). So, although virtual interaction can be valuable it is not a replacement for face-to-face interaction, particularly for initial meetings of individuals or teams. Furthermore, the increase in remote working has indicated that face-to-face interaction is important for motivation, team-building, mentoring, a sense of belong and loyalty, arguably more so than in place-centred workgroups (Deprez and Tissen 2009).ConclusionThe role of knowledge management in the workplace has become an increasingly valuable segment of a companys resources. This study examined the practice of working remotely versus employee interaction in the work place providing many illuminating developments. Despite the early optimism that emerging technology was going to provide the end all to employee work habits have proven less than fully realized. The evidence in this study has continuously illustrated an environment that requires the innovative, face to face interaction in order to maintain a competitive edge in the industry. Further, the very environment that promotes this free exchange of ideals is not adequately substituted by technology. In short, the evidence provided in this study has clearly demonstrated the advantage that the in house employee has over the remote worker.The impromptu encounters between employees are very often the elements needed for progress. What is clear is that in order for a business to capitalize on their full range of available resources approximately requires, face to face personal interaction in order to fully realize the firms full potential. In the end, it will be the combination of leadership, teamwork and innovation that provides business with the best environment, not necessarily how much technology is available.ReferencesDalkir, K. 2005. Knowledge management in theory and practice. Amsterdam Elsevier/Butterworth Heinemann.Denstadli, J., Gripsrud, M., Hjorthol, R. and Julsrud, T. 2013. Videoconferencing and business air travel Do new technologies produce new interaction patterns?. Transportation Research Part C Emerging Technologies, 29 pp. 113.Nonaka, I. and Takeuchi, H. 2011. The wise leader. Harvard Business Review, 89 (5), pp. 5867.Noorderhaven, N. and Harzing, A. 2009. Knowledge-sharing and social interaction within MNEs. ledger of International Business Studies, 40 (5), pp. 719741.Rhoads, M. 2010. Face-to-Face and Computer-Mediate d Communication What Does Theory Tell Us and What Have We Learned so Far?. Journal of Planning Literature, 25 (2), pp. 111122.Tallman, S. and Chacar, A. 2011. Knowledge Accumulation and Dissemination in MNEs A Practice-Based Framework. Journal of Management Studies, 48 (2), pp. 278304.

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